Jimalee Sowell is a PhD candidate in composition and applied linguistics at Indiana University of Pennsylvania. Her research interests including second language writing, teacher education, disability studies, and genre analysis.

Email: hbqy@iup.edu

Marta’s hands were shaking, and her heart was beating fast. She wrote the same paragraph over and over again, but no matter how much time she spent on it, it never looked right. Marta was frustrated. She went for a walk to see if that could help her writing process. It did not. Marta read more—but just felt more confused. Ideas kept swimming around in her head, but she found herself unable to determine which ones were most important and struggled to organize them. Marta was aware that she had to finish her essay but could not. Marta felt stuck between an impossible position of having to complete a piece of writing and not being able to. Marta worried that what she had written would not be good enough, and she would be deemed a failure. 

Marta is not alone in her feelings of writing anxiety. In fact, many writers—from students to professional writers—suffer from writing anxiety. Cheng (2004) found that writing anxiety related to poor performance on exams and in jobs that required writing. Writing anxiety can be so debilitating that it has a negative impact on writing motivation and desire to take writing courses (Martinez et al., 2011). Chamberlain (2011) suggested that some feelings of stress or anxiety associated with writing can be helpful, motivating students to complete writing assignments. However, writing anxiety can be crippling, preventing writers from successfully completing writing tasks or under-performing. While completely eliminating writing anxiety may not be realistic (and may not even be helpful), it is possible to mitigate writing anxiety through effective teaching so that English language learners can be productive writers. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of writing anxiety as well as practical strategies for alleviating it. The paper starts with a definition of writing anxiety and its causes. Subsequently, the paper focuses on research related to writing anxiety and second language learners. In the main section, this article offers practical strategies to prevent and mitigate writing anxiety in English language learners. 

 

What is writing anxiety?

A term to describe the nervousness felt about writing first entered the lexicon in 1975 when Daly and Miller (1975) used the term “writing apprehension” to describe students who are “unduly apprehensive about writing” (p. 242). According to Daly and Miller, students with writing apprehension fear judgement of their writing and thus avoid it whenever possible. In 1987, McLeod extended the definition by suggesting that writing anxiety is “…negative anxious feelings (about oneself as a writer, one’s writing situations, or one’s writing task) that disrupt some part of the writing process” (p. 427). McLeod (1987) pointed out that individuals with writing anxiety are intellectually capable of carrying out writing tasks or assignments but are thwarted in the process and production because of anxious feelings about writing (McLeod, 1987). The terms “writing apprehension” and “writing anxiety” are now interchangeable (Daly & Wilson, 1983; McLeod, 1987), with “writing anxiety” the more common term.

 

Causes of writing anxiety

There are several reasons writing provokes anxiety. The complex nature of writing presents students with numerous challenges (Huerta et al., 2017). Writing involves a number of subskills skills, including transcription skills (e.g., handwriting and spelling), linguistic skills (e.g., grammar and vocabulary) and cognitive skills (e.g., executive function and self-regulation) which are executed through a writing process to communicate meaningfully through written text (Berman & Ravid, 2009). Developing writers might experience writing anxiety more acutely because they have not yet mastered the skills and knowledge needed to produce adequate texts (De La Paz & Graham, 2002). Hamp-Lyons and Heasley (2006) have pointed out that by its very nature, writing for school can be anxiety-provoking: few people feel comfortable while writing a task intended to be judged by someone else, in particular, when that “someone else” is a teacher who will examine the writing with a critical eye and assess it. High expectations for writing can contribute to increased writing anxiety (Martinez et al., 2011); high-stakes writing tasks such as exams and terminal projects for degree completion can produce higher levels of anxiety. In a study on emotion and writing transfer, Driscoll and Powell (2016) found that anxiety toward university writing assignments was circumstantial (a person might experience writing anxiety in some instances but not others). 

 

Writing anxiety among L2 student writers

Writing anxiety may be even more pronounced in a second language (L2). In addition to the causes of writing anxiety experienced by L1 writers, L2 writers are often also contending with a developing L2 language repertoire and might be asked to write in genres they are not familiar with. Several studies (e.g., Alnufaie & Grenfell, 2013; Genc & Yayli, 2019; Huang, 2014; Huerta et al., 2017; Qadir et al., 2021) have shown that when writing in English as an L2, students experience moderate to high levels of anxiety. For some English language learners, writing anxiety results in poor performance. In a study of 100 Iraqi undergraduate students majoring in English, Sabti et al. (2019) found a correlation between high levels of writing anxiety and poor writing performance: as levels of anxiety became higher, writing performance declined. Similarly, Jennifer and Ponniah (2017) found that higher levels of anxiety resulted in poorer performance. Anxiety might be higher for lower-proficiency writers. Some studies (e.g., Daud et al., 2016; Quvanch & Kew, 2022) have found that writing anxiety was higher among students with beginning-level proficiency than more advanced ones. For some English language learners, writing provokes more anxiety than other skills. In a qualitative study with two participants, Badraswi et al. (2016) found that students felt more anxiety about writing than speaking, listening, and reading. These studies suggest that writing anxiety is a common and serious challenge for L2 writers. 

 

Causes of writing anxiety among L2 writers

There are a number of causes for writing anxiety among L2 writers. One cause is a lack of clear understanding of assignment expectations (Huang, 2014). Some L2 writers reported that their anxiety stemmed from a lack of composition skills (e.g., how to effectively organize a piece of writing (Badraswi et al., 2016; Genc & Yayli, 2014) and limited writing practice (Jennifer & Ponniah, 2017). For some L2 writers, fear of evaluation including negative comments from the instructor greatly contributed to writing anxiety (Jennifer & Ponniah, 2017; Qashoa, 2014; Quvanch & Kew, 2022). Genc and Yayli (2019) discovered that a lack of effective feedback provoked anxiety. Some studies found that writing anxiety stemmed from difficulty generating ideas or not having ideas to write about (Alnufaie & Grenfell, 2013; Badraswi et al., 2016; Huang, 2014). These findings provide clear guidelines for ways to address writing anxiety among L2 learners. Strategies for mitigating writing anxiety are addressed in the subsequent section. 

 

Ways to help with writing anxiety

Recommendation 1: Focus on writing 

It is normal for students to feel anxious about required tasks and assignments they do not know how to carry out successfully. Pekrun (2014) classified anxiety as a negative achievement emotion related to failure. When a student values a task but feels that they lack the competence to carry it out as well as expected, they will often experience anxiety (Pekrun, 2006). Students who have not received adequate writing instruction and have had little writing practice will often experience writing anxiety when assigned writing tasks simply because they are unsure of how to write. While it may seem obvious that writing instruction is important, in many English language classrooms around the world, writing instruction has not been and is still not given much attention. Since the turn of the 18th century, most English teaching methods and approaches have emphasized speaking skills (Howatt & Widdowson, 2004; Richards, 2015).

Although a preference for spoken communication in teaching methodology might have made sense in previous decades, in the current global context, English language learners increasingly need writing skills in English for academic, professional, and personal purposes (Lee, 2015; Richards, 2015; Storch, 2018). A number of studies across the globe have shown that writing instruction in primary and secondary schools is generally inadequate. Several studies indicated that K-12 teachers did not devote much time to writing instruction (e.g., Brindle et al., 2016; Graham et al., 2014; Hsiang & Graham, 2016; Kiuhara et al., 2009), often less than an hour a day, and frequently much less than an hour. In addition to a limited amount of instruction time, students did not produce many writing products (e.g., Brindle et al., 2016; Kiuhara et al., 2009), sometimes completing only one or two writing assignments per year. Most writing assignments were short, no longer than a paragraph (Gilbert & Graham, 2010). In some classes, writing instruction focused narrowly on preparing students for high-stakes writing tasks on national exams (Abdel Latif & Haridy, 2018; Al-Jarrah & Al-Ahmad, 2013; Darwish, 2016). While students are tested on writing—especially on high-stakes national exams at the end of secondary school—they are often not provided sufficient instruction to develop adequate writing skills. As a result, students are prone to develop writing anxiety, seeing writing as a skill that they do not feel confident about but, paradoxically, are judged harshly on (Hafer, 2014).

Therefore, first and foremost, it is important that writing skills be given more attention in the English language classroom. Writing can be taught from the first levels of foreign language learning. Secondary school teachers in a study by Nguyen (2021) reported that students would have a better chance of achieving adequate writing skills by the end of secondary school if writing instruction started in elementary school. In the elementary grades, evidence-based practices for writing instruction include teaching foundational skills such as handwriting, spelling, and writing sentences; writing for different purposes, strategies for using the writing process, such as pre-writing and revision, and formative assessments to guide writing development. The secondary level includes the continuation of the same basic practices (with the exception of spelling and handwriting no longer explicitly taught) in addition to integrating reading and writing (Graham, 2019). When writing is taught and practiced regularly from the primary level, writing will be less anxiety-provoking in and beyond secondary school. Secondary school graduates can enter jobs and university courses with basic writing skills. At the university level, students should be given adequate opportunities to develop their writing across the curriculum. Writing assignments should not be limited to English or composition courses. At all levels, instruction should involve practicing a variety of writing genres (genres should not be limited to preparation of high-stakes writing), explicit writing instruction, inclusion of low- stakes writing assignments, and a meaningful feedback process. These constructs are explained in the subsequent sections. 

 

Recommendation 2: Provide explicit instruction 

Lack of clear understanding of assignment expectations causes writing anxiety. In a study on writing in English in secondary schools in Benin, Ylonfoun (2022) found that study participants, who were practicing secondary school teachers in Benin, viewed their experience of learning to write compositions in English as sink or swim, whereby they were given writing assignments in English but no specific instruction for how to complete them. While still common in classrooms around the world, writing instruction through an immersion model is rarely sufficient (Cheng, 2022). This type of instruction sets students up for confusion and often inadequate performance, which can lead to writing anxiety. Student writers develop writing skills and gain confidence from explicit writing instruction (Alawerdy, & Alalwi, 2022; Clark, 2013; Darowski et al., 2022). Explicit instruction for writing provides students with genre expectations, assignment guidelines, and assessment information. These constructs are covered in this section. 

 

Process-genre pedagogy

Genre analysis

Process-genre pedagogy helps student writers understand the relationship between purpose and form of a particular genre as they carry out the stages of prewriting, drafting, revision, and editing (Yan, 2005). Genre instruction starts with having students examine expert samples of the given genre (Samples texts might come from textbooks or other published sources). Students analyze expert texts for common genre features, including both macro features (e. g., overall structure and organization) and micro features (e.g., grammar, mechanics, and word choice). For instance, if the assignment is a narrative essay, students will first examine the macro-features. Narrative essays typically feature a central conflict that is resolved and are concluded with an explanation of what the writer has learned from the experience. Students will then look at the micro features of a narrative essay, such as frequent use of the past tense and instruction on how to properly punctuate dialogue (micro features). In addition to analyzing expert texts, students should also be provided sample exemplar student texts because these models are often closer to what student writers might produce than expert texts (Sowell, 2019). To avoid the genre trap in which students see a genre as a template to plug information into, it is important that students examine a variety of text samples (Graham et al., 2016) of both expert and student writing.   

 

Process instruction

Once students understand the key features of the given genre, they should be guided through a writing process that provides explicit instruction to develop their ideas through pre-writing activities and drafting. With a narrative essay, for instance, pre-writing can start with having students fill in a graphic organizer or doing some freewriting. Once students have finished pre-writing, they can draft their narrative. (For more about instruction on teaching writing process stages and strategies, see Graham et al., 2016). After completing a draft, students should be provided with feedback to help them develop and refine their ideas. (Guidance for meaningful feedback is addressed in the subsequent section.) Finally, as students revise their drafts, they should reflect on their writing, evaluating it against the features of effective writing, which was provided in the model paragraphs (Graham et al., 2016). Students need plentiful opportunities to practice a given genre. They should not be expected to be proficient in any given genre until they have practiced it several times (Gear, 2020). 

 

Provide students with clear assignment guidelines

Students can experience writing anxiety when they are not clear about what they are expected to produce. Assignments such as, “Write three pages about something that happened to you” or “Writing an essay about an important event” are vague and can leave students unsure of how to successfully complete the assignment.

Good writing assignments are specific and include the following components:

1. Learning objectives: Include a description of the learning objectives and student-learning outcomes. 

2. Explanation of the genre: Provide a brief explanation of the genre. 

3. Justification and purpose: Explain why students are assigned this task. 

4. Tasks: Provide information about the tasks students will do leading up to the completion of the assignment. This might include tasks such as pre-writing activities, drafts, and peer reviews. 

5. Submission format: Provide the conventions students should use and where and when they should submit the assignment. For example: Your paper must be 1,500 – 2,000 words typed and double-spaced. Submit your paper to the learning management system by 11:59 p.m. on January 29. 

6. Assessment: Let students know how the assignment will be assessed. If you are using an assessment instrument, such as a rubric, share it with the students. 

 

Assignment sheet

It is a good idea to give students an assignment sheet that includes the outlined components listed above. Students can refer to the assignment sheet as they carry out the assignment. (For a sample assignment sheet with corresponding rubric, see Appendix A.) 

 

Recommendation 3: Give Some low-stake writing assignments

What are low-stake writing assignments?

Low-stake writing assignments can help mitigate the anxiety students feel from receiving feedback or grades on a writing assignment. Low-stake writing assignments are typically short writing assignments that are exploratory in nature (Elbow & Svinicki, 2013). Through low-stake writing assignments, students can actively engage with course content and explore ideas about certain topics (Elbow & Svinicki, 2013; Verlaan & Verlaan, 2017). In essence, students learn to write by writing; however, high-stake writing assignments that determine a grade or admission to an institution or job can be so anxiety-provoking that they prevent students from taking part in the very activities that can lead to improved writing skills. Low-stake writing assignments help students get words on paper and can provide meaningful writing practice without the pressure of being judged on the quality of the written product. 

 

Benefits of low-stake writing assignments

Low-stakes writing assignments have been shown to lead to positive learning gains. Manchón and Roca de Larios (2011), found that low-stake writing assignments helped EFL students develop a more complex understanding of writing that shifted from an almost exclusive focus on accuracy to a more nuanced understanding that included a focus on textual features, audience, purpose, and content. Lew and Schmidt (2011) and Cheng and Feyten (2015) found that low-stake writing assignments helped student writers develop reflective practices. Stevenson (2020) found that students who completed low-stake writing-to-learn assignments outperformed students who did not complete low-stake writing on exams and maintained a higher level of performance over time. Similarly, Inciri and Parmaksiz (2016) found that students who engaged in low-stake writing assignments improved academic achievement and attitude toward learning over those who did not.  

 

What and how

Low-stake writing can take many forms. Some examples are diary entries, journal entries, blog posts, discussion post entries, summaries, freewriting, reflections, responses (to readings, lectures, and so on), graphic organizers, and word webs. Low-stake writing assignments can be thought of as pertaining to two categories: 1. Prewriting tasks for a specific writing assignment (Sample prompt: Provide an overview of what you plan to write about in your literacy narrative. What is the conflict? What is the setting? Who are the characters? How was the situation resolved? What is the significance of the story? Write at least 200 words.). 2. Exploration of ideas (that are often stand-alone products) (Sample prompt: Find three different texts that you have read recently. Each text should represent a different genre. For each one, identify the genre, purpose, audience, stance, mode, and media. Is reading these texts through a rhetorical lens different from how you read it the first time? Explain. Write at least 200 words for this post.) The number of low-stakes writing assignments you assign will depend on your instructional purposes and students’ needs. 

 

Evaluation of low-stake writing assignments

Low-stake writing assignments might be ungraded or graded as pass/fail. I grade low-stake writing assignments as pass/fail. I give points to low-stake writing assignments as long as students have responded adequately to the prompt and have met the minimum word count. In addition to helping students solidify recently-learned concepts, low-stake writing assignments also serve as a useful type of formative assessment that provides insight into how students are engaging with course content and developing their writing projects. I provide feedback on low-stake writing assignments to help learners move forward with their writing and learning. 

 

Recommendation 4: Employ a meaningful approach to feedback on student writing

While most English language teachers would not imagine correcting every spoken error a student might make, armed with a red pen (or Track Changes), many English language teachers feel responsible for ensuring that students create perfectly clean, error-free pieces of writing. Several studies (e.g., Al-Jarraf & Al-Ahmad, 2013; Furneaux at al., 2007; Lee, 2005, 2008a, 2008b) have shown that when providing feedback on student writing, English language teachers often take on the role of copyeditor, correcting every error. However, it is not the teacher’s role to have students produce copyedited, publishable writing. The writing teacher’s job is to help students become better writers and to develop language skills. A meaningful feedback strategy can move students toward more successful revisions and reduce writing anxiety. 

 

Balance feedback with praise, criticism, and suggestion

Feedback on student writing should be provided in a balanced manner. Often feedback on student writing focuses on what needs to be revised, but students also need feedback on what they have done well (Folse, 2016; Harmer, 2015; Hyland, 2019). Positive feedback not only helps students understand what has worked in a piece of writing, but it also motivates students to continue to develop their writing skills (Chamberlain, 2011; Hyland, 2019). Hyland and Hyland (2019) suggest a feedback approach that provides praise, criticism, and suggestion. Praise helps the writer understand what they have done well; criticism expresses some kind of dissatisfaction with a text; and suggestion gives the reader clear direction on how to improve the text. (Figure 1. provides a sample of what balanced feedback might look like.)

Figure 1. Sample of praise, criticism, and suggestion feedback on student writing 

 

Relate feedback to instruction

Align feedback on the instruction provided when introducing the genre to students (Hyland, 2019; Lee, 2017). With the narrative essay example, for instance, at the macro-level, pre-writing instruction would focus on the plot structure for a narrative (background, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution). At the micro-level, pre-writing instruction would focus on past tense, dialogue, transitions and connectives, and adjectives for setting and character (Lee, 2017). In addition, since English language learners are typically developing language skills in addition to composition skills, corrective feedback might also include specific types of errors or patterns of errors (Ellis, 2009; Ferris, 2011), such as errors with verb tenses, singular-plural errors, and count/noncountable nouns. Frequent errors or errors that interfere with meaning might also be attended to (Lee, 2017). 

 

Recommendation 5: Position the self as writer

Finally, positioning the self as writer is beneficial for reducing student writing anxiety. A number of studies (e.g., Dix & Cawkwell, 2011; Locke & Kato, 2012; McCarthey et al., 2014) have shown that teachers who position themselves as writers are better writing teachers because they are more confident about writing, have more flexibility toward writing and methods of writing instruction, and demonstrate more enthusiasm for writing. Modeling the processes and activities the teacher engages in as a writer helps students develop competence and confidence in their own skills as writers (Cremin & Baker, 2014). Demonstration of writing and writing alongside students can help teachers position themselves as writers in the classroom (Cremin & Baker, 2010). 

 

Demonstration of writing

Through demonstration of writing, teachers show how they go about a particular writing task that they will assign students. For instance, a teacher might demonstrate a pre-writing activity. They can show the first draft of their pre-writing activity and the changes they make as they carry out the task. This can include a think-aloud process whereby the teacher talks about what they are thinking as they compose in front of the class. A think-aloud process can help students see that writing is an iterative process interwoven with a thinking process.

A think-aloud pre-writing demonstration might look something like the following:

Figure 2. Example of the think-aloud process

When the teacher shows students a piece of writing they have completed at the different stages in the process (pre-writing, drafting, revision, and final copy), students can understand that the teacher also develops their writing through a process (Hafer, 2014). Additionally, the teacher might share some of the feedback they have received on a piece of writing and let students know how they used the feedback to inform and develop their writing. Teachers can also ask students to provide feedback on a piece of writing they are working on. This shows students a willingness to be vulnerable by sharing their writing in the same ways they ask their students to share their writing. 

 

Write alongside students

Teachers can also write alongside students in class (either in a face-to-face or online class). The teacher might work on the same assignment they have given their students or another piece of writing. Writing alongside students helps the teacher develop and maintain empathy for the student writers (Cremin, 2010). It can also provide space for informal opportunities to discuss issues and questions that may arise as students and teacher write together. The teacher can meet the same writing challenges they have set for their students. For example, if a teacher has assigned their students a three-page essay by the end of the week, the teacher should also complete three pages of writing. 

 

Conclusion

Writing anxiety is a common problem among English language learners. Writing in of itself is an inherently difficult task which can cause anxiety because of its complex nature. However, sometimes teachers cause or exacerbate the writing anxiety experienced in the second language writing classroom. Vague writing assignment expectations, inadequate instruction on how to write in English, insufficient time given to practicing writing, and ineffective feedback contribute to second language learners’ feelings of writing anxiety. Writing anxiety can be lessened through effective teaching. Writing teachers can provide explicit instruction for writing and clear assignment guidelines. Additionally, writing teachers can provide sufficient writing practice through multiple and varied writing assignments, including some low-stakes writing tasks. Furthermore, writing teachers can implement meaningful feedback strategies. Finally, writing teachers can help instill confidence in their students by positioning themselves as writers in the classroom. While it may not be possible to eliminate writing anxiety, good writing instruction can develop more confident and proficient writers. 

 

References 

Abdel Latif, M. M., & Haridy, A. (2018). High-Stakes English writing assessment in Egyptian secondary schools. In T. Rueker and D. Crusan (Eds.) The Politics of English Second Language Writing Assessment in Global Contexts (pp. 85-99). Routledge. 

Alawerdy, A. S., & Alalwi, F. S. (2022). Enhancing English as a foreign language university students’ writing through explicit instruction of conjunctions as cohesive devices: An experimental study. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1053310

Al-Jarrah, R. S., & Al-Ahmad, S. (2013). Writing instruction in Jordan: Past, present, and future trends. System, 41, 84-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2013.01.016

Alnufaie, M., & Grenfell, M. (2013). EFL writing apprehension: The macro or micro? Journal of Arts and Humanities, 2(3), 79-89. https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/bitstream/1893/21468/1/Grenfell.pdf.

Berman, R. A., & Ravid, D. (2009). Becoming a literate language user: Oral and written text construction across adolescence. In D. R. Olson & N. Torrance (Eds.), Cambridge Handbook of Literacy (pp. 92-111). Cambridge University Press. 

Bitchener, J. (2008). Evidence in support of written corrective feedback. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17(2), 102-188. 

Brindle, M., Harris, K. R., Graham, S., & Hebert, M. (2016). Third and fourth grade teachers’ classroom practices in writing: A national survey. Reading & Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 29, 929-954. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-015-9604-x

Chamberlain, O. (2011). Releasing reluctant writers. Shihvillage Publications.

Cheng, A. (2022). Genre and graduate-level research writing. University of Michigan Press. 

Cheng, Y. S. (2004). A measure of second language writing anxiety: Scale development and preliminary validation. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13(4), 313-335. doi:10.1016/j.jslw .2004.07.001 

Cheng, R., & Feyten, C. M. (2015). L2 students’ academic literacy development guided by teacher written feedback: A writing-to-learn perspective. Studies in Applied Linguistics, 6(2), 7-25.

Clark, C. M. (2013). The effects of explicit writing instruction. Graduate Research Papers, 35.  https://scholarworks.uni.edu/grp/35

Cremin, T., & Baker, S. (2010). Exploring teacher-writer identities in the classroom: Conceptualising the struggle. English Teaching: Practice and Critique, 9(3), 8-25.

Cremin, T., & Baker, S. (2014). Teachers as writers: An occasional research paper, Sydney, PETAA. 

Daly, J. A., & Miller, M. D. (1975). The empirical development of an instrument to measure writing apprehension. Research in the Teaching of English, 9(3), 242-249.  

Daly, J. A., & Wilson, D. A. (1983). Writing apprehension, self-esteem, and personality. Research in the Teaching of English, 17(4), 327-341.  https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/40170968.pdf

Darowski, E. S., Helder, E., & Patson, N. D. (2022). Explicit writing instruction in synthesis: Combining in-class discussion and an online tutorial. Teaching of Psychology, 49(1), 57-63. https://doi-org.proxy-iup.klnpa.org/10.1177/0098628320979899

Darwish, H. (2016). Teachers’ attitudes and techniques towards EFL writing in Egyptian secondary schools. International Journal for 21st Century Education 3(1), 37-57. https://doi.org /10.21071/ij21ce.v3i1.

De La Paz, S., & Graham, S. (2002). Explicitly teaching strategies, skills, and knowledge: Writing instruction in middle school classrooms. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(4), 687-698. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.94.4.687  

Dix, S., & Cawkwell, G. (2011). The influence of peer group response: Building a teacher and student expertise in the writing classroom. English Teaching: Practice and Critique, 10(4), 41-57.

Driscoll, D. L., & Powell, R. (2016). States, traits, and dispositions: The impact of emotion on writing development and writing transfer across college courses and beyond. Composition Forum, 34. http://compositionforum.com/issue/34/states-traits.php

Elbow, P., & Sorcinelli, M. D. (2013). How to enhance learning by using high-stakes and low-stakes writing. In M. Svinichi & M. J. McKeachie (Eds.). McKeachie’s Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research and Theory for College and University (14th ed.). Houghton Mifflin. 

Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition (2nd ed.) Oxford University Press.

Ellis, R. (2009). Corrective feedback and teacher development. L2 Journal, 1(1), 3-18.

Ferris, D. (2011). Treatment of error in second language student writing. University of Michigan Press. 

Folse, K. (2016). Keys to teaching grammar to English language learners. University of Michigan Press. 

Furneaux, C., Paran, A., & Fairfax, B. (2007). Teacher stance as reflected in feedback on student writing: An empirical study on secondary school teachers in five countries. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 45, 69-94. DOI:10.1515/IRAL.2007.003

Gear, A. (2020). Powerful writing strategies: Brain pocket strategies for supporting a year-long writing program. Pembroke Publishers. 

Genc, E., & Yayli, D. (2019). The second language writing anxiety; the perceived sounds and causes. PAU Journal of Education, 45, 235-251. doi: 10.9779/PUJE.2018.231

Gilbert, J., & Graham, S. (2010). Teaching writing to elementary students in grades 4 to 6: A national survey. Elementary School Journal, 110, 494-518. DOI: 10.1086/651193

Graham, S., Bruch, J., Fitzgerald, J., Friedrich, L., Furgeson, J., Greene, K., Kim, J., Lyskawa, J., Olson, C. B., & Smither Wulsin, C. (2016). Teaching secondary students to write effectively (NCEE 2017-4002). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. http://whatworks.ed.gov.

Graham, S., Cappizi, A., Harris, K. R., Hebert, M., & Morphy, P. (2014). Teaching writing to middle school students: A national survey. Reading & Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 27, 1015-1042. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-013-9495-7

Graham, S. (2018). A revised writer(s)-within-community model of writing. Educational Psychologist, 53, 258–279. DOI: 10.1080/00461520.2018.1481406

Graham, S. (2019). Changing how writing is taught. Review of Research in Education, 43(1), 277-301. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X18821125

Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (2019). Evidence-based practices in writing. In S. Graham, C. A. MacArthur, M. Hebert (Eds.) Best practices in writing instruction. Guildford Press. 

Hafer, G. (2014). Embracing writing: Ways to teach reluctant writers in any college course. Jossey-Bass. 

Hamp-Lyons, L., & Heasley, B. (2006). Study writing (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 

Harmer, J. (2015). The practice of English language teaching (5th ed.) Longman. 

Howatt, A. P. R., & Widdowson, H. G. (2004). A history of English language teaching. Oxford University Press. 

Hsiang, T., Graham, S., & Wong, P. (2018). Teaching writing in Grades 7–9 in urban schools in the Greater China Region. Reading Research Quarterly, 53, 473-507. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.213

Hsiang, T. P., & Graham, S. (2016). Teaching writing in Grades 4–6 in urban schools in the Greater China Region. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 29, 869-902. DOI: 10.1007/s11145-015-9597-5

Huang, Y. (2014). Taiwanese graduate students' voices on language anxiety over writing academic papers. Journal of Language Teaching and Research 5(6), 1219-1228. doi:10.4304/jltr.5.6.1219-1228

Huerta, M., Goodson, P., Beigi, M., & Chlup, D. (2017). Graduate students as academic writers: Writing anxiety, self-efficacy, and emotional intelligence. Higher Education Research & Development, 36(4),716-729. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2016.1238881

Hyland, K. (2019). Second language writing (2nd ed.) Cambridge University Press. 

Hyland, K., & Hyland F. (2019). Contexts and issues in feedback on L2 writing: An introduction. In K. Hyland & F. Hyland (Eds.), Feedback in second language writing: Contexts and issues, (2nd ed.) (pp. 1-22). Cambridge University Press. 

İncirci, A., & Parmaksiz, R. S. (2016). The effects of writing to learn (WTL) on academic achievement and attitude to lesson in English classes. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 4(9), 2163-2173. DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2016.040928

Jennifer, J. M., & Ponniah, R. J. (2017). Investigating the levels, types, and causes of second language writing anxiety among Indian freshmen. Journal of Asia TEFL, 14(3), 557-563. 

Kiuhara, S., Graham, S., & Hawken, L. (2009). Teaching writing to high school students: A national survey. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 136-160. DOI: 10.1037/a0013097

Lee, I. (2005). Error correction in the L2 writing classroom: What do students think? TESL Canada Journal, 22, 1-16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18806/tesl.v22i2.84

Lee, I. (2008a). Understanding teachers’ written feedback in two Hong Kong secondary classrooms. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17, 69-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2007.10.001

Lee, I. (2008b). Student reactions to teacher feedback in two Hong Kong secondary classrooms. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17, 144-164. DOI:10.1016/j.jslw.2007.12.001

Lee, I. (2017). Working hard or working smart: Comprehensive versus focused written feedback in L2 academic contexts. In J. Bitchener, N. Storch, & R. Wette (Eds.), Teaching writing for academic purposes to multilingual students (pp. 168-180). Routledge. 

Lew, D., & Schmidt, H. (2011). Writing to learn: can reflection journals be used to promote self- reflection and learning? Higher Education Research & Development, 30(4), 519-532. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2010.512627

Locke, T., & Kato, H. (2012). Poetry for the broken-hearted: How a marginal year 12 English class was turned on to writing. English in Australia 17(1), 61-79.

Manchón, R., & Roca de Larios, J. (2011). Writing to learn in FL contexts Exploring learners’ perceptions of the language learning potential of L2 writing. In R. M. Manchón (Ed.), Learning-to-write and writing-to-learn in an additional language (pp. 181-207). John Benjamins Publishing.

Martinez, C. T., Kock, N., & Cass, J. (2011). Pain and pleasure in short essay writing: factors predicting university students writing anxiety and self-efficacy. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 54(5), 351-360. 

McLeod, S. H. (1987). Some thoughts about feelings: The affective domain and the writing process. College Composition and Communication, 38(4), 426-435. https://www.jstor.org/stable/357635

Nguyen, T. H. H. (2021). Vietnamese upper-high school teachers’ views, practices, difficulties, and expectations on teaching EFL writing. Journal on English as a Foreign Language, 11(1), 1 – 20. DOI: 10.23971/jefl.v11i1.2228

Pekrun, R. (2006). The control-value theory of achievement emotions: Assumptions, corollaries, and implications for educational research and practice. Education Psychology Review, 18, 315-341. doi: 10.1007/s10648-006-9029-9 

Pekrun, R. (2014). Emotions and learning. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000227679

Quvanch, Z., & Kew, S. N. (2022). Evaluating Afghan University students’ writing anxiety in English class: An empirical research. Cognent Education, 9(1), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2022.2040697

Qadir, S. M., Bostanci, H. B., & Kurt, M. (2021). Writing apprehension among English as a foreign language postgraduate students. Sage Open, 11(2), 1-14. DOI: 10.1177/21582440211007121

Qashoa, S. H. H. (2014). English writing anxiety: alleviating strategies. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences. 136, 59-65. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.05.288

Richards, J. (2015). Key issues in language teaching. Cambridge University Press. 

Sabti, A., Rashid, S. M., Nimechchisalem, V., & Darmi, R. (2019). The impact of writing anxiety, writing achievement motivation, and writing self-efficacy on writing performance: A correlational study of Iraqi Tertiary EFL learners. Sage Open, 9(4), https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019894289 

Sheen, Y., Wright, D., & Moldawa, A. (2009). Differentiated effects of focused and unfocused written correction on the accurate use of grammatical forms by adult ESL learners, System, 37(4), 556-569. 

Sowell, J. (2019). Using models in the second language writing classroom. English Teaching Forum, 57(1) 2-13. https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/etf_57_1_02-13.pdf

Stevenson, C. (2020). Benefits of low stakes write to learn assignment on exam performance. Teaching of Psychology, 47(1), 45-49. https://doi-org.proxy-iup.klnpa.org/10.1177/0098628319888088

Verlaan, S., & Verlaan, W. (2017).  Process with a purpose: Low stakes writing in the secondary English classroom. In E. H. Ortlieb, E. H. Cheek, Jr., & W. Verlaan (Eds.) Writing instruction to support literacy success (pp. 95-105). Emerald Group Publishing.

Ylonfoun, A. L. E. (2022). Beninese high school English teachers’ prior English writing experiences: implications for teaching writing in English (30313937). [Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University of Pennsylvania]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. 

 

Appendix A  

Narrative Essay Assignment Sheet

 

Please check the Pilgrims f2f courses at Pilgrims website.

Please check the Pilgrims online courses at Pilgrims website.